Grammar Girl Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing

Code-Switching. Mignon Snaps Over Numbers. Foomp.

Episode Summary

883. The numbers sections of style books finally pushed me over the edge, and I have some stories you won't believe! We also talk about how cool code-switching is.

Episode Notes

883. The numbers sections of style books finally pushed me over the edge, and I have some stories you won't believe! We also talk about how cool code-switching is.

Transcript:  https://grammar-girl.simplecast.com/episodes/code-switching-mignon-snaps-over-numbers-foomp

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Episode Transcription

Grammar Girl here. I’m Mignon Fogarty, and you can think of me as your friendly guide to the English language. We talk about writing, history, rules, and other cool stuff.

Today, we'll talk about a neat phenomenon called code switching and about how to write numbers.

Before we get started, though, I want to mention that I’ve revamped my email newsletter and now instead of just being links to what we do every week, I’m summarizing and highlighting some of my favorite word-related articles and posts. It’s a lot more interesting and meaty, and I think you’ll like it. So open it if it comes to your inbox and you haven’t in a while, or if you want to subscribe, just go to quickanddirtytips.com and look for the subscribe link. It’s free.

Code-Switching

There's a fascinating trick multilingual people use called code-switching, which is also called code-mixing or language alternation. Those are just fancy ways of describing the practice of switching between two or more languages, dialects, or language varieties in a single conversation, situation, or even in a single sentence. If you hear someone code-switching, you may think they’re confused. But they’re not; the fact that they are code-switching actually means they know the languages they are switching between especially well.

There are really two definitions of code-switching. The first is the one I just mentioned, linguistic code-switching, which is mostly used by bilingual and multilingual speakers. Of course, speakers can’t just plug in any old word and ignore grammatical rules. According to United Language Group, when speakers code-switch, it seems like it just happens on-the-fly, but underneath, there are many factors—even subconscious ones—speakers apply so what they’re saying makes sense.
 

Here is a short example of a bilingual woman code-switching between English and Spanish from a video called "Alyssa's Example of Code-Switching: Spanglish" on YouTube by Alyssa Moreno: [10 seconds of audio with a mix of English and Spanish.]

The second, broader definition of code-switching comes from sociolinguistics—which, according to dictionary.com—is the study of how languages function in society. Speakers use different language combinations, dialects, accents, and even mannerisms within social groups to show that they identify with the group. Speakers might change their language style based on whom they’re talking to, what they’re talking about, where they are, and much more. For example, teenagers often talk differently with their friends than they do with their grandparents. Again, according to United Language Group, lots of factors come into play why and when speakers code-switch in social groups, including age, class, location, upbringing, and ethnicity.

Carlos D. Morrison, a professor of communications at Alabama State University notes that one particularly interesting field of study is the ways in which code-switching, particularly by members of minority ethnic groups, is used to shape and maintain a sense of identity and belonging to their community. In this context, code-switching might mean adjusting a style of speech, appearance, behavior, and expression to make other people more comfortable or to be treated more fairly in public, at work, or at school.

Now let’s look at why people code-switch. There are several reasons:

The most common reason for code-switching is completely unintentional; people slip into a different language or accent without even meaning to.

Next, everyone wants to fit in. People often code-switch—both consciously and unconsciously—to be more like the people around them. While this can be effective, it can also backfire. Matt Thompson from NPR, for example, described a Spanish teacher in Nashville who works with students who use a Southern, African-American English dialect. He is used to speaking with his students in this way, which likely allows him to make a strong connection with them and explain his subject more easily. But one day, his principal walks in and asks for a report he needs. The teacher responds to him in the same style he uses with his students, which earns him an “open mouth and raised eyebrow from his boss.” And he quickly code-switches back to standard English.

Next, sometimes people code-switch not just to fit in, but to actively seek favor from others or get something they need. According to Thompson, service industry workers from the South have reported that a Southern accent is a surefire way to get better tips and more sympathetic customers: “Apparently, everyone who works in [restaurants] picks up ‘y'all’ immediately upon arriving at their job.”

Sometimes, people code-switch to convey secrets — for example, teens talking to their friends in front of their teacher, or a couple whispering sweet nothings to each other in public. This type of code-switching also comes with risks, though; it can cause other people to make assumptions about what is being said or become suspicious because they don't understand it.

Code-switching can also help a speaker convey a thought.Certain concepts need that “perfect” word or expression to just get the point across. Many people switch languages or use colloquialisms — words or phrases typically used in ordinary or familiar conversation—to express specific ideas. Sometimes the right word just does not exist in one language or the other. And sometimes the situation just warrants it, like the mother who mixes in some colorful Spanish expressions with her regular English when she is upset with her kids.

Bilingual people will also code-switch when reporting what another person said to them in the other language. In her blog “Españolita: ¡Sobre la Marcha!,” Audrey Kratovil gives the example of her friend, D., who, in a conversation that started in Spanish, switched to English to inform her that his boss had told him “he was off to a tremendous start.” According to Kratovil, “It would sound unnatural if D. translated into Spanish what his boss told him, given that I understand English.”

Finally, speakers code-switch due to a process called “borrowing.” A bilingual person will sometimes “borrow” a word from the other language because the vocabulary from their first language just doesn’t cut it. Kratovil described another conversation with D., in which he had used the word “Tupperware.” What’s really interesting though is that, to maintain flow, D. kept the pronunciation and intonation of the language they were speaking. Hence, D. used a Spanish-influenced pronunciation: “too-pear-WAHR-ey” for Tupperware.

There are many more reasons and ways people code-switch than those we just discussed. Although many people say they code-switch to fit in, several others note they do it to be different. As NPR’s Gene Demby pointed out in his post "How Code-switching Explains the World": “No matter your race, ethnicity, class, or cultural background, you probably do it.”

As neat as it is, unfortunately, there are many negative stereotypes and misconceptions about code-switching. Some people think it’s a sign that a speaker doesn’t know either language very well. But, as Karin Waldhauser from Bilingual Kidspot points out, “It’s actually a fairly sophisticated linguistic tool.” It’s true! The brain is figuring out the most efficient way to communicate. Waldhauser continues: “Rather than indicating a lack of ability, or laziness, code-switching is usually a sign of people using all the resources in their brains to get their meaning across.”

The most common misconception is that people who code-switch are confusing their languages or dialects. Not so! The British Council notes that code-switching is deliberate, not random, and is a typical characteristic of multilingual communication. They say, “It is rule-governed and embedded in the structure of the languages used. It allows multilingual communication to flow.”

Some people believe code-switching is a sign that they’re lazy or not really bilingual. This is also simply not true. Bilingual people who know both languages equally well often code-switch. Elin Asklöv from Babbel Magazine gives the following examples spoken by a bilingual person from Puerto Rico: “La comida estabadelicious; we enjoyed it a lot!” (meaning "The food was delicious; we enjoyed it a lot!") or “Pasamos una noche super nice!” (meaning "We had a super nice evening!")


 

In reality, code-switching requires an advanced level of bilingual ability, according to The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Code-switching. We know this because the speaker has to follow the rules of each language’s grammar between and even within sentences; again, it doesn’t just happen willy-nilly. And those who speak one language better than the other don’t code-switch as much. True code-switching generally requires that a speaker know both languages really well. According to Asklöv, “It is a choice made by speakers with a wide variety of words and expressions to choose from.”


 

We all use code-switching to some extent. The way we speak to our clients or teachers is not the same way we speak to our close friends. Most people know how to do this instinctively, and bilingual people just have more tools in their language toolkit.

Tools like code-switching are part of what make language fun! So the next time you hear someone code-switching, marvel at how quickly someone's brain can process and mash-up two different languages.

That segment was written by Susan K. Herman, a former U.S. government editor, language analyst, and language instructor.

——

How to Write Numbers

Whether to use a numeral or to spell out a number as a word is a matter of style. In the most general sense, most guides agree that you should use words for the numbers one through nine, but for larger numbers and in specific instances, the rules vary wildly from style guide to style guide.

Some say to use words for the numbers one to one hundred, one to ten, any word that can be written with one or two words, and so on. Typically, people who write business or technical documents are more likely to use numerals liberally, whereas people who write less technical documents are more likely to write out the words for numbers. If someone handles numbers in a different way than you do, they're probably using a different style guide.

I've often joked with my husband about what it will be that one day makes me snap, and it turns out, it's the numbers sections of style guides. I've been working on this frickin' segment for more than a year, and every time, I get fed up and abandon it because it's just chaos. Chaos. There's almost no agreement about anything.

And even when your style guide has a general rule about numbers, it will likely have exceptions. For example, the AP Stylebook generally recommends writing out the numbers one through nine and using the numerals for bigger numbers, but it also has exceptions like always using numerals for ages, dimensions, distances, monetary units, golf club names, sports scores, spacecraft designations, planes (but not Air Force One), and more.

Chicago summarizes its guidelines, and then in the very next entry outlines alternative guidelines.

Beginning of a Sentence

You might think there are some other general rules, like not to use a numeral at the beginning of a sentence. Sure. That's a general rule; most style guides recommend writing out the words. But then there are exceptions like don't do it if it's "awkward," according to Chicago. And don't do it if it's a year or something like "401(k)," according to the AP Stylebook.

And if you've been listening to this podcast for any length of time, you know me, and you know that I don't mind exceptions, and these exceptions, they even seem good. I mean, you shouldn't do something awkward just to stick to some rigid style, but the differences and exceptions just go on and on, so much so that I don't even know what to tell you.

Here's another one: numbers in dialogue or quotations. Chicago says to write out numbers in dialogue (so far so good), except when it looks silly. They say it in a nicer way. They say it "requires editorial discretion." But that basically means don't do it if it looks silly. AP, on the other hand, says to just treat quotations like you would any other text; it doesn't have any special style for numbers in quotations.

And here's the last example I'll thrust upon you: What do you do when you have a mix of numbers in one sentence? For example, what if you are writing about five truffles, 22 cake pops, three quickly melting fudgesicles, and 126 chocolate sprinkles all laid out in a row (to channel my inner Squiggly here)?

Well, Chicago, again, gives you multiple options. If you would use the numeral for one item in a category, you can use it for all of them. So since all the things we lined up are foods, and you use the numeral for the 126 chocolate sprinkles, so you'd use the numeral for all of them.

But if you have multiple categories, you can treat each category separately. For example, if I added two napkins and three forks to the end of the list, I could use the words for those amounts. And I think that looks ridiculous! But hey, they have so many exceptions, I could probably do it any way I wanted and that would be fine. The title of this section in the style guide, by the way, is "9.7: Numbers: consistency and flexibility." It's perfectly reasonable, actually. But annoying if you're trying to explain rules to people.

For this same kind of sentence, the Associated Press says to just stick to the style and write the words for two, three, and five, and the numbers for 22 and 126. But then they acknowledge in the Q&A section that it looks weird and this rule is one of the reasons they are "taking a close look at our numerals guidelines with a goal of simplifying them."

And I know from hearing the editors talk at conferences that they've been trying to update and simplify the numbers section for at least 4 years now, maybe 5, and I think they were already struggling with it, and then the pandemic hit and threw them off even more. So every year I keep expecting an update, and it doesn't come. And that's fine. I mean, I'm not mad at them. I get it.

But it's been a hard week anyway, and these numbers sections just did me in. Maybe I just picked the wrong week to resolve to finally tackle this tough topic.

So here's the best advice I can give you:

Do whatever. No, no, I'm just kidding. OK, if you are required to follow a certain style guide, you are probably going to need to look up number-related rules a lot. Don't rely on just the basic one through 10 or one through 100 guidelines. It's vastly more complicated than that. Put sticky notes on the pages with the rules you'll probably need to use a few times or save them digitally somewhere so you can find them again quickly in the future.

And if you have some flexibility, although it's always fine to create a house style that you like and use that instead, it's especially fine in the case of numbers because (1) the style guides themselves are all over the place, and (2) it's not like most of your readers are going to be familiar enough with all these complicated rules to even notice if you do your own thing.

Of course, it's still a good idea to be consistent with whatever style you choose. I mean, your readers may notice if you handle numbers in different ways in different articles or on different pages of your website.

And…I lied. I have one more weird and annoying number fact for you: Did you know that a billion is actually a different amount in different countries? Yup! In the United States, a billion is 10^9, or one thousand million, but in a lot of non-English-speaking countries, it's 10^12, or a million million. And in Britain, it can be either. Either!

"Billion comes to English directly from French, where the "bi" prefix was meant to mean a million squared, or a million million. But eventually the French changed it to mean a thousand million, and the United States adopted that French meaning in the 19th century. But later, in 1948, in what I can only imagine must have been a "gotcha" head-fake just to mess with people, France reverted to the older meaning.

Britain originally went with the older (million million) meaning; but according to the Oxford English Dictionary, since 1951, the American and discarded French definition has been gaining ground in Britain, and I believe it is now the official government definition, but again according to the OED, the other definition (million million) is also "common" in Britain. So I really don't know what to tell you if you are reading British English or translated documents except to double check the meaning of the word "billion." And now I'm finished.

Finally, I have a familect story from Jessica.

"Hi, Mignon. My name is Jessica, and I just listened to a podcast where a listener shared their familect, and their familect was 'foop.' F-O-O-P.And my family has a similar one that I wanted to share. Ours is 'foomp,' and ours that relates to any time something disappears suddenly. We say that it foomped. This started when we were on a car ride and had a blanket rolled up into the window as kind of a sun shade, and my husband opened the window before I had a good hold of the blanket, and the noise that it made as it got sucked out of the window was foomp. So from that point on anything that disappears suddenly, especially if it's flying out of a window, we say that it foomped. So I just wanted to share. Love your podcast. Thank you so much."

Thank you so much, Jessica. I started laughing about halfway through your story because I could see where this was going. Foomp!

If you want to call with the story of your familect, a word your family and only your family uses, you can leave a voicemail at 83-321-4-GIRL, and I might play it on the show.

Grammar Girl is a Quick and Dirty Tips podcast. Thanks to my audio engineer Nathan Semes and my editor Adam Cecil. Our ad operations specialist is Morgan Christianson, and our digital operations specialist is Holly Hutchings. Our intern is Brendan Picha, and our marketing and publicity assistant is Davina Tomlin, who believes that all librarians are magical, but especially Davina's dad, whose birthday was yesterday. Happy birthday, Russ!"

I’m Mignon Fogarty, better known as Grammar Girl. That's all. Thanks for listening.