Grammar Girl Quick and Dirty Tips for Better Writing

Scissors, Jeans, and Other Nouns That Are Always Plural. Flat Adverbs. Boteep.

Episode Summary

873. Today, we'll talk about some weird nouns that are always plural, and then we'll go two-dimensional and talk about flat adverbs.

Episode Notes

873. Today, we'll talk about some weird nouns that are always plural, and then we'll go two-dimensional and talk about flat adverbs.

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Episode Transcription

Grammar Girl here. I’m Mignon Fogarty, and you can think of me as your friendly guide to the English language. We talk about writing, history, rules, and other cool stuff.

Today, we'll talk about some weird nouns that are always plural, and then we'll go two-dimensional and talk about flat adverbs.

12 Nouns That Are Always Plural

If you’re deep in the world of fashion influencers on Instagram, or have ever caught an episode of a fashion reality show, then you might have heard phrases like "My go-to evening look is a smoky eye and a red lip," or "This outfit could be completed with a tailored pant." If you have never done those things, then bear with me anyway. You get the idea: sometimes there is an assumption of an implied plural when singular versions of words are used. You’d have to be pretty avant-garde to put lipstick on only one lip or eye make-up on only one eye.

While you’d be more likely to refer to eyes, lips, and trousers outside of fashion terminology, we’re all familiar with what one eye looks like. But what is a singular pant or, for British listeners, trouser? They don’t exist.

"Pants," when referring to the clothing you’d pop on your legs, is an example of a "plurale tantum." That’s Latin for "plural only." In other words, a noun that is used only in plural form. If you’re a native English speaker, you might not even have noticed you’re using them. But here are a whole load of examples that you’ve almost certainly said – and how they ended up as "pluralia tantum."

First, "scissors."

The first known uses of the word "scissors" are actually singular – spelled in a variety of ways, including starting with "cy." That was in the 15th century, and the plural version quickly overtook the former in popularity. While you’d still hear "scissor" as a verb, or to form a compound noun like "scissor kick," you’re unlikely to come across a single scissor. The same is true of many other two-bladed tools – like "pliers," "forceps," "shears," "tweezers" and "tongs."

Next, when we’re talking about eyewear, the word "glasses" is like "spectacles," "goggles," or "binoculars": today, you’ll only hear them used as plurals. Even those who favor talking about a "red lip" don’t seem to have adopted a "tortoiseshell glass" as of yet. Things get a bit more complex if you pop "a pair of" in front of the words. The "a" suggests you should treat "a pair of glasses" as singular, but research shows that you’re equally likely to come across "a pair of glasses are" as "a pair of glasses is."

Moving on to bottoms, lots of the names for two-legged garments are pluralia tantum. We have "overalls," "leggings," "shorts," "pants," "tights," and "trousers" – but let’s look at "jeans." This word is an abbreviation of the French "jean fustian," for the Italian city Genoa – fustian being a twilled cotton cloth. [and] While jeans are usually made of denim today, the name stuck. And, no, there has never been a single "jean" when it comes to clothes.

Sticking with the world of attire, we speak of "clothes" but never of a single "clothe." "Clothe" exists as a verb, and "cloth" is a common singular noun – but isn’t used to mean "a garment." Not anymore, at least. In the late-14th century, "cloth" was indeed used to mean a single garment. You’ll find that in "Piers Plowman" and the works of Chaucer. Nowadays, you’d have to use "an article of clothing" to get the same meaning.

So far all these pluralia tantum end in "s," but that needn’t be the case. "Marginalia," meaning notes written in the margins of a text, is another example. In this instance, the fact that it’s only used in the plural isn’t a case of linguistic evolution. Rather, it’s a case of selective borrowing. "Marginalia" is taken directly from Latin, which also had the singular "marginalis" – but, for whatever reason, English never took "marginalis."

Other Latin borrowings that are pluralia tantum include "juvenilia," meaning works produced by an author or artist while still young, and "literati," meaning well-educated people who are interested in literature.

A plurale tantum doesn’t have to be a tangible object [either]. Another example is the word "shenanigans." It means "secret or dishonest activity or maneuvering," or "silly or high-spirited behavior," but its etymological origins aren’t clear. What is known is that its earliest known use, in a mid-19th century article, is in the singular "shenanigan." The singular was in use for another hundred years, but in recent decades, you’ll only find the plural "shenanigans."

Next, what are the odds? Whether you’re talking about gambling, chance, or an argument where you’re "at odds" with someone else, you won’t get a single "odd." As you might expect, this plurale tantum comes from the adjective "odd," originally with the idea of "unequal things." This broadened into various ideas of difference – particularly in likelihood and probability.

If you’re into marine biology, you might know that the singular "loggerhead" does exist – it’s a variety of turtle. But you’re more likely to find it used in the phrase "at loggerheads," meaning "in violent dispute or disagreement." Even the mildest argument can’t be termed "at loggerhead," though – there’s no singular version.

It has been suggested that this use of "loggerheads" relates to a late-17th-century sense of "loggerhead" meaning "long-handled iron instrument for heating liquids and tar," when wielded as a weapon. Ouch!

After being at loggerheads, you can – and often should – make "amends," but you can’t make an "amend." While "amend" exists as a verb, the noun is borrowed from the Old French "amendes," meaning a penalty or fine. In Old French there was also a singular "amende," but that didn’t find its way into English.

Next, if "smithereens" means "small pieces," would one small piece be called a "smithereen"? You’ve guessed it – no. The word is probably from the Irish "smidirín," but only the plural exists in English. It’s almost always used in the context of destruction, such as "the vase was smashed into smithereens." Some people use "smithers" instead of "smithereens" – but, again, there’s no such thing as a single "smither."

Next, consider this phrase: "There’s nowt so queer as folk." It's an expression of surprise or disapproval at the odd things people do, and it’s originally from the north of England, though it's now used more widely. "Folk" is a little unusual as a plurale tantum, because you can use either "folk" or "folks" – such as an "old folks’ home" – but either is a plural. There’s no such thing as a single "folk."

Finally, thanks for listening – and, yes, "thanks" is the final plurale tantum. You’d find "thank" in the words "thank you," of course, but you wouldn’t give someone a single "thank." Unless, that is, you were in Ancient Britain and used the Old English "thanc," ending in a c, from which the modern word derived.

That segment was by Simon Thomas who has been blogging about books since 2007, with a focus on novels by women from between the World Wars. He is also the co-host of the podcast ‘Tea or Books?,’ where they debate the difficult decisions of books and reading. You can find him at stuckinabook.com.

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Flat Adverbs

Last week, I mentioned the concept of flat adverbs when we were talking about the word "funnest," so today, we'll dig in a little more.

Are we allowed to “drive slow” instead of “slowly”? May we “jump high” or “sit up straight”? What about the websites and cookbooks with the title “Eat fresh”? Yes, today is adverb day, with a sprinkling of adjectives.

What are adjectives and adverbs?

First, an adjective modifies a noun or pronoun. For example, in the sentence “That is a real diamond,” “real” is an adjective that modifies the noun “diamond.” Other examples of adjectives are “devious” and “fair.”

Squiggly eyed the chocolate with a devious smile.

Aardvark reminded Squiggly of his promise to eat only his fair share.

An adverb, on the other hand, modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs often have an “-ly” at the end, as in “happily” and “heartily.”

Squiggly happily posed for the cameras.

Aardvark heartily hoped he would get a turn in the limelight.

Such adverbs are usually formed by adding “-ly” to the end of an adjective, as we just did with the adjectives “happy” and “hearty.”

Do all adverbs end in '-ly'?

Other adverbs, however, such as “very,” don't fit this pattern. You might complain, for example, “Squiggly eats very noisily.” In that sentence, the adverb “very” modifies another adverb, “noisily.”

To confuse matters, adjectives can also end in “-ly.” For example, in the sentence “The lonely snail stared up at the moon,” the adjective “lonely” modifies the noun “snail.” Poor Squiggly.

So you can’t tell if words are adverbs or adjectives just by looking to see if they end in “-ly.” These two letters at the end of a word can be a clue, but you can’t rely on spelling.

What are flat adverbs?

You must have heard the joke “Working hard? Or hardly working?” Both versions—“hard” and “hardly”—are adverbs. “Hardly” is one of those regular “-ly” adverbs. “Hard” is what’s called a flat adverb, which according to Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of Modern Usage is “an adverb that has the same form as its related adjective” (1). Examples include the word “fast” in “Drive fast!” and “bright” in “The moon is shining bright” (2).

Merriam-Webster notes that grammarians have been arguing about this kind of adverb for at least a couple of centuries and shares the interesting fact that flat adverbs used to be a lot more common than they are now. The guide offers charmingly odd-sounding examples such as “…I was horrid angry…,” a 1667 quotation from Samuel Pepys; and “…the weather was so violent hot,” from Daniel Defoe’s "Robinson Crusoe," published in 1719. Few modern speakers would utter such statements, and they really shouldn’t do so, as you’re not allowed to chop off any old “-ly.”

Which words are flat adverbs?

Modern speakers are, however, allowed to say things such as “Drive slow” and “Stay close.” Much as some sticklers would like these sentences to be as incorrect as “violent hot” is today, flat adverbs are real, and you can use them—really. Various style guides give many examples of bona fide flat adverbs. Here’s a short list: “far,” “fast,” “hard,” “slow,” “quick,” “straight” (3), “clean,” “close,” “deep,” and “fine” (4). So go ahead and say, “He kept his cards close” or “Please sit tight.”

Can words be both adjectives and adverbs?

“What?” you may be thinking. “Words like ‘far,’ ‘close,’ and ‘tight’ are adjectives!” You’re right, but they can also be adverbs. Some adjectives and adverbs have the same form, and that’s what a flat adverb is. Some of these adjective-adverb-whatever-they-are-thingies never change. So “fast” always stays “fast.” You get into the fast lane, and you drive fast if you don't want to get rear ended. You never say, “fastly.” “Long” and “far” also fall into this category. You would definitely raise eyebrows if you tried to use “longly” or “farly.”

Now, you may also be thinking that you can sometimes stick an “-ly” onto these adjectives that are also adverbs. And you'd be right again! You are allowed to add an “-ly” to the word “close,” for example. You’ll get the very normal adverb “closely.”

Pairs of adverbs like this often convey different meanings, though, and you can’t always use them interchangeably. For example, the flat adverb “close” and the regular “-ly” adverb “closely” fall into this category. You could say, “Stand close,” but “Stand closely” would sound odd. You would use “closely” in a sentence such as “Look closely at this photograph.”

Other times both forms mean the same thing and you may use either one (5). Common pairs in this category include “Drive slow”/“Drive slowly” and “Hold on tight”/“Hold on tightly” (6). Go ahead and pick whichever one sounds best to you for your particular sentence. If you’re unsure about the form of an adverb, check your dictionary.

The verdict

Let’s now look back at the questions we posed at the beginning: Are “Drive slow,” “Jump high,” “Sit up straight,” and “Eat fresh” OK to use? The first three are a definite yes. You could also say, “Drive slowly,” but you’d never say, “Jump highly” or “Sit up straightly.” Those are just weird.

As for the “Eat Fresh” titles, let’s just call it an example of a creative adverb that is meant to bring attention to itself.

Advertisers and marketers sometimes push the boundaries of correctness just to get noticed. Although “fresh” does not appear to be an official flat adverb, it can be an adverb, as in the phrase “fresh out.” You might say, “We're fresh out of mayonnaise.” You just don’t normally pair “fresh” with the verb “to eat.” “Freshly,” on the other hand, is an established adverb that you would use in a sentence such as “I ate the freshly baked cookies,” but you couldn’t say, “Eat freshly.”

The most generous way to interpret "eat fresh" is to say that there's an implied noun at the end and that the adjective “fresh” modifies that noun. So, it could mean “Eat fresh sandwiches,” but that feels like a stretch. Unless you’re writing marketing or advertising copy, I don’t recommend that you write this creative. I mean, this creatively.

Conclusion

To sum up, flat adverbs are a real type of adverb. Just make sure that you’re using a bona fide flat adverb and that you aren’t leaving out a necessary “-ly.” If you'd rather not irritate the sensitive types, you could always rephrase your sentence or use the “-ly” form if it is allowed in your particular sentence.

Before we say, “That’s all,” let’s acknowledge that you did work hard as you listened today. You were not hardly working.

That segment was written by Bonnie Mills, who's been a copy editor since 1996.

And I have to add that the idea of implied sandwiches made me think of something funny that Tiffany C. Li, a law professor, wrote on Twitter recently. She said, "I close my emails with “Best.” Best what? You assume regards, but it’s waffles. I am wishing you best waffles at the end of every email." So I often also close my emails with "best," and now — every time I do it —I think of waffles. Implied waffle, and I too am wishing everyone best waffles. 

Finally, I have a familect story from John.

Mignon, this is John Firestone calling from New Orleans. I have a familect story. First, thank you. Adore the podcast. but to this family story as a child my father would often fall asleep about 8:00 slump in a barrel-back chair with his head tilted back. My youngest sister find this position would often quite carefully groom his hair for minutes and minutes at a time, and when she thought she had completed the job, she would step back with the plastic comb in both hands and declare 'Oh dad, you're boteep.' We're never quite sure where this word came from, but my family has continued to use it to mean everything is just right, and you're looking dressed to the nines. I later came to find out that my wife's family uses a French word ... to mean the same thing. So you get two for the price one here. Thank you."

Thanks, John!

If you want to call with the story of your familect, a word your family and only your family uses, you can leave a voicemail at 83-321-4-GIRL. Call from a nice, quiet place, and I might play it on the show.

Thanks to my audio engineer, Nathan Semes, and my editor Adam Cecil, who is a massive fan of the UK sports drink Lucozade and believes they should bring their brand to the US. (He says he can help). Our Ad Operations Specialist is Morgan Christiansen and our marketing and publicity assistant is Davina Tomlin, who has forgotten just about everything from 10 years of martial arts training, but technically still has a black belt. And finally, our intern is Brendan Picha.

I'm Mignon Fogarty. That’s all. Thanks for listening.

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References for the Adverb Article

  1. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of English Usage, p. 451. 1994. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.
     
  2. Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary of English Usage, p. 451. 1994. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.
     
  3. Lutz, Gary, and Diane Stevenson. 2005. Grammar Desk Reference, pp. 37-8. Cincinnati: Writer’s Digest Books.
     
  4. Burchfield, R. W, ed. 1996. The New Fowler’s Modern English Usage, Third Edition, p. 23. New York: Oxford.
     
  5. Lutz, Gary, and Diane Stevenson. 2005. Grammar Desk Reference, pp. 37-8. Cincinnati: Writer’s Digest Books.
     
  6. Lutz, Gary, and Diane Stevenson. 2005. Grammar Desk Reference, pp. 37-8. Cincinnati: Writer’s Digest Books.